Pharmacy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Pharmacy - Essay Example Of course, there are many other formulations that I could become as a drug: powder, gel capsules, even nasal spray. But the most common types are the tablet and suspension forms. All of the equipment I come into contact with between now and when I am ingested by a patient must be clean and sterile. I must be sealed away from outside contact, so that I do not become contaminated with debris, bacteria, or other microscopic particles. Every canister, tank, mixer, pipe, hose, and bottle has to be sterilized completely. Many of the items I will come in contact with have been steam-sterilized, because using clean steam prevents me from being contaminated by the cleaning products themselves. I am pumped from a delivery vehicle into a tank to be stored at the manufacturing site. The tank I am in is only one of many in the tank farm at this pharmaceutical plant. In order to assure safety, the tanks are sterilized before I am pumped into them through an airtight transfer pump. After a period o f storage, I am then pumped from the storage tanks into a make-up and boot tank, and then from there into a reactor tank to start the manufacturing process. The plant keeps very careful track of the arrival times of all the ingredients for their products, including me, in order to ensure that nothing is stored too long. They also have to keep track of the temperature and humidity of the storage areas, because some ingredients cannot be exposed to temperatures that are too high or too low, and some cannot be exposed to humid air in case they react with the oxygen. Some chemicals must even be kept away from contact with the oxygen in the air, because they will oxidize and change form. At the start of the manufacturing process, I am weighed with great precision, as are the excipients that will make up the tablets or suspension with me. The weights of the various ingredients will depend on batch size and dosage amount, and all of the weights are recorded for quality assurance. Each of t he ingredients are all weighed individually in separate sterile canisters because having the right amounts of each ingredient is vital to the properties of the final product. The reactor mixes us together in the right proportions, according to the size of the batch and the dosage amount of the final product. Depending on my properties and the properties of the other ingredients in my mixture, the next steps will vary. If I and the other active and inactive ingredients are dry powder that can be mixed together smoothly, we can be sent on to the next step of tablet pressing without further processing. If the right mixtures cannot be obtained through simple stirring in the reactor, there are two other possibilities to create the necessary homogeneity of the mixture for the creation of tablets. These possibilities are wet granulation or dry granulation. If I can be mixed with water, the manufacturer will use an aqueous solution, as that will be safer; if, like many pharmacological chemi cals, I cannot come in contact with water without reacting to it and degrading, I will be mixed with a solvent solution. If I go through wet granulation, a liquid binder-adhesive will be added to me in the reactor, where we will be thoroughly mixed together. Using the correct amounts of the liquid binder-adhesive is vital, because if too much of the liquid is added to me, my granules will come out to be too

Criminal Law Mens Rea Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Criminal Law Mens Rea - Essay Example The topic statement is lifted from Glanville Williams Criminal Law: The General Part [2nd ed. 1961]. A perusal of the topic shows that it runs counter to another statement in the same text which shows the belief of the author that the concept of mens rea is an index of maturity of our legal system. The correlation to the various justifications of punishment or purposes of criminalization does not at all compute when considered from the various vantage points and time frames of the said justification theories. The mental element of crime may be significant for one purpose or the other but the same way that the various purposes do not conjoin with any one crime, the element of mens rea will not be relevant to all the justifications and purposes. The cardinal principle of criminal law is that 'a wrongful act does not make a person guilty unless his mind is legally blameworthy.' There must not only be a wrongful act (actus reus), but with it must also concur intent (mens rea, Latin: the guilty mind; a guilty or wrongful purpose; a criminal intent1). Actus non facit reum nisi mens sit rea.2This is so because evil thoughts are condemnable and punishable only when they are sufficiently dangerous to society and only when translated into evil deeds. From a practical vantage point, there is really no way for any legal system to sanction evil thoughts. Blackstone confirmed this: " "[A]s no temporal tribunal can search the heart, or fathom the intentions of the mind, otherwise then as they are demonstrated by outward actions, it therefore, cannot punish for what it cannot know And as a vicious will without a vicious act is no civil crime, so, on the other hand, an unwarrantable act without a vicious will is no crime at all. So that to constitute a crime against human laws, there must be, first, a vicious will; and secondly, an unlawful act consequent upon such vicious will."3 Again, for Glanville Williams, mens rea is significant of (legal) civilization.4 The existing ideals of justice require that a person should only be punished where he intended to commit the unlawful act. This is a simplistic formulation because if strictly adhered to persons committing crimes in ignorance of criminal law would not be held liable. This situation would result to impossibility in implementing the law. This led to the adoption of presumptions to govern the matter. The burden to prove the existence of a criminal state of mind is lodged upon the prosecution in most offences except those of strict liability. Mens rea does not mean 'wickedness' in any moral or general sense.5 On the other hand, good motive does not provide defence to what is otherwise criminal.6 Mens rea is a legal jargon that refers to a number of states of mind that the law treats as criminal, each of which is related to or accompanies the ingredient of the actus reus of the offence. This concurrence is what gives rise to criminal liability. These states of mind that are relevant to establishing criminal liability are: 1) intention, 2) recklessness and 3) gross negligence about consequences and they represent the fault element of crime. Knowledge of the surrounding circumstances may form part of the mens rea. Not every ingredient of actus reus of a statutory offence has a mens rea counterpart;

Bajaj Two Wheeler Marketing Analysis

Bajaj Two Wheeler Marketing Analysis Bajaj Auto Limited (BAL) was recognized in 1945, firstly launching scooters and three wheelers a centre in the Indian market. In 1991 its properties of the Indian government rule on foreign imports, BALs marketing object the development of the Indian two wheeler business from scooters to 2 stroke and 4 stroke bikes with a robust stress on BAL while studying its strategies. Along with the analysis found that BAL moving into developing markets in instruction to increase sales and found a global footmark. According to market report also comprises SWOT study of BAL which will help it to express an actual marketing policy for the next five years. In adding to SWOT analysis, Bajaj auto limited latest model Pulsar DTS-i 220cc,150 cc ,180cc 135 cc and Discover DTS-i 135 cc 100cc increased growth suddenly. Its product quality (maintenance, mileage service) better than any another Hero Honda, TVS motor product. At present time ,Bajaj very good position in two wheeler industry because Its ch anges model half yearly, yearly. Its also increase market share. Bajaj discover 100 makes new record -over 10 lakh bike sold in just 15 months. In 2010, Bajaj auto limited launch latest Bajaj Discover 150cc, pulsar 135cc, 220cc model changes in two wheeler market. All the brand comparable with other two wheeler company that its all brand were gave better average with new technic cheaper price. Table of Contents COMPANY HISTORY: Inspiring Confidence, the tagline, has constructed up confidence, complete pleasure engineering, not only to national customers but also internationally. Recognized just eight periods back in 1926 thru Jamnalal Bajaj, the company has been conferred with Indias major exporter of two-wheeler three-wheeler. In 2004-05, produce sales 196,710 units, a great 26 per cent jump over the previous year In 2004-05, Bajaj Auto Ltd. sales have increased about 21 per cent which at most Rs 65.4 billion. Its record in the history of the company. The gross working profit positions at Rs. 9.3 billion, over a record. The profits after tax of the BAL are close to Rs. 7.7 billion, and the pre-tax return on working capital is at an inspiring 80 per cent. The company strength is product excellence, brilliance in engineering and design, and its aptitude to pleasure the customers. In November 2004, the Pulsar introduced is continually controlling the best segment of the motorcycle market, helping to maintain the market advantage. Discover DTS-i, one more successful bike on Indian roads, is in the value segment of the motorcycle market. It joins a high degree of power with petroleum competence of a 100cc motorcycle. The market turns on high economies of device and on high economies of choice. The requirement for technical expertise is high. Owning a strong supply network is important and is very costly. All these brand the fence high enough to be a warning for new candidates OBJECTIVE: Bajaj Limited is to deliver the market requirements of transportation by providing two- wheeler. BAL has been manufacturing the list products to supply to the changing market requirements. Founded on the customer feedback, improvements are being made continuously in the current products. Its wants to be a good market growth in Indian two wheeler Industry. LITERATURE REVIEW: Marketing is the management process that identifies, anticipates satisfies customer requirements profitably. (The Chartered Institute of Marketing) Marketing is a social managerial process by which individual groups obtain what they want and need through creating ,offering and exchanging products of value with others, (kotler, 1991) The marketing mix helps you define the marketing elements for successfully positioning your market offer. One of the best known models is the Four Ps, which helps you define your marketing options in terms of product, place, price and promotion. Use the model when you are planning a new venture, or evaluating an existing offer, to optimize the impact with your target market. MARKETING MIX 4PS MODEL PROMOTION ADVERTISING Earlier tagline Defiantly Male but now its using tagline Distinctly Ahead. It inspires confidence and sends message of Free Biking. Its association with stunt mania (MTV) helps at targeting youth. Hero Honda is worlds no 1 two wheeler sales company. Advertising by Sorav Ganguly Hirtik Roshan. Hero Honda annual STAR SCREEN AWARDS etc. TVS Apache selected Bike of the Year in 2006. Company give a free gifts like electric item, offer price on Diwali, New year any other occasion. SWOT ANALYSIS: Strengths: Highly knowledgeable management Competences of product design development Widespread RD focus Wide spread distribution network High performance products across all classes High export to national sales ratio Great financial support network Great economics of scope scale Weaknesses: Hasnt employed the extra cash for  long Still has no recognized brand to match hero Hondas splendor in customer segment Not a global player in malice of enormous capacity Not a internationally familiar brand (unlike the JV partner Kawasaki ) Threats: The struggles catches-up new  innovation in no time Threat inexpensive of important motorcycle from china Margins getting embraced from both the directions (price as well as cost) Tata Ace is a thoughtful struggle for the three- wheeler cargo segment Pulsar 135 cc will good competitor to Hero Honda other bike. Opportunities: Dual growth in two -wheeler market Unused market above 180cc in motorcycle More adulthood and movements towards higher-end motorcycles The increasing gearless trendy scooter and scootte market Increasing world demand for entry-level motorcycle particularly in emerging markets. BAL is devoted to discouragement of pollution, continual development of environment presentation and obedience with all environmental rule and regulations. They always trust in as long as the customer value for money and save a special eye upon excellence, security, productivity, cost and distribution. THE INVEITABLE CHANGE: Bajaj on interior analysis found that it required The practical knowledge to deliver modest goods. The design knowledge. And the instant incapability to support the attack of competitors. Bajaj to expression for an global partner who could transport in technology and also proposal some basic stages to be factory-made and promoted in India. In Japan, Kawasaki is a world-renowned producer of high presentation bikes. In 1990, Bajaj arrived into a planned tie-up with Kawasaki to improve its product line and gen up-gradation to support long-term plans. This helped the purpose of satisfying the market rivalry for a whereas. From 1996 to 2000, Bajaj capitalized extremely in infrastructure though concurrently developing product design and innovation competences, which is the prime reason behind the lively Bajaj of 21st century. After 2001, Bajaj introduced a swing of products right from entry-level motorbike to the best segment right and since then its wet success all the technique for Bajaj. Previous sector, Bajaj had inspiring performance increasing at a rate of 20%+ when the main producer produced at just 6%. This stands a testament to the numerous significant strategic choices over the previous period. MARKET SEGMENTATION: BRAND POSITION: Bajaj Auto is a top company of Bajaj group. Bajaj Auto Limited (BAL) is presently Indias second largest worlds fourth largest two-wheeler and three wheeler producer. The vital ability of Bajaj Auto Ltd is its technology and invention. Both DTS-i (Digital Twin Spark Ignition) and DTS-Fi (Digital Twin Spark Fuel Ignition) are technological advances by Bajaj. BAL is also a innovator in product innovation having accessible technologies such as Exhaust TEC (Exhaust Torque Expansion Chamber), LED tail lamps, LCD Display, SNS, Spare parts (Rear disc brakes, tube less tyres), Black colour system etc. Similarly, the company also learnt that deviation was another important part of its focus on specialism, with the Discover obviously located for the customer section and the Pulsar as the sporty option. The features, so, had to be high-class for each product in terms of looks and trip while protection profitability. Since Bajaj Autos point of view, the customer and sporty parts are the backbone of Indias motorbike market. And even while it has bikes to proposal from the KTM and Kawasaki firm, these largely continue in the place category as off-road and on-road players understanding into incomplete numbers. MARKETING STRETEGIES: The focus of BAL rotten twilight has been on as long as the best models at modest values .Most of the Bajaj models come loaded with the modern landscapes within the price group suitable by the market. BAL has been the innovator in widening competition into as long as newest features in the price section by informing the low price bikes. The latest features like twin spark, disk-brakes, anti-skid DTS-I technology and dual suspension, etc. who increase great growth in two wheeler industry. BAL accepted different promotion policies for different models, few of them are deliberated by table: Strategies Model Engine Technology Market Kawasaki 4s champion 100cc Bajaj first bike launched that time Hero Honda is a great market leader In fuel efficient bike Yamaha is performance bike Boxer 100cc AT/CT/AR three models come in market with good technology. Target rural population price delicate client. Boxer marketed as a worth for money bike a great mileage. It was in straight struggle to Hero Honda Dawn and Suzuki MX100. Pulsar new150cc, 180cc,135 cc 220cc, 200cc, DTS-I (digital twin spark ignition), DTS-Fi, Exhaus TEC (Exhaust Torque Expansion Chamber), Self-start Pulsar was launched in direct competition to the Hero Hondas CBZ model in 150 cc plus segment. all model was a great success and has already crossed 1 million marks in sales. Pulsar bike achieve very good market growth day by day Platina 100cc, 125cc DTS-i. Self-start Bajaj Platina is a leader in mileage appearances in the 100 cc class The Platina 125cc bike has a well-ordered expression along with a great rev-up and acceleration. IMPLEMENTATION: Although the avalanche of motorcycles offered Indian customers a wide variety of models to select from, it also resulted in increased weight on the companies to essence on cost-cuts, technology improvements and up-gradations and fashioning. Their margins came under weight as marketing costs intensified. The companies were compulsory to decrease prices and proposal reductions to live the competition. Moreover, analysts were cynical about the segments ability to uphold the development rate in the years to come. One of the main expectations original the motorbikes rush was that if the market was significantly large and was growing at a constant step, there was room for a profitable being for all products. In 2001, there were over 30 motorbike products in the market. Though, with the top five brands accounting for more than 60% of the market, only 40% of the market was accessible for all other new products put together. In spite of the launch of more vehicles, the endurance forecasts of many of the individual brands were believed to be slightly unwelcoming. Further, the development in the motorbike segment was dependant on on-going positive market situations. Analysts requested that to withstand this growth rate, the section would have to totally cannibalize the market for scooters and a significant part of the market for scooters and mopeds. As the fast increasing scooters segment, with high demand from female clienteles, followed by the temperately growing moped segment and the rearrangement in the scooter section thru major national and foreign companies supporting their attendance, it was unlikely that the whole growth in the two-wheeler subdivision would be due to motorbikes. Forecasters also observed that as the two-wheeler manufacturing had grown gradually for eight years, periods in the product life series would apply to the ground rather, rather than future and the weakening stage would usually come sometime. There was little difference between the products being launched separately from designing as most companies had presented their four-stroke vehicles. The Indian companies would succeed in producing the kind of volumes wanted to endure in the modest motorbike market, remainders to be understood. RECOMMENDATION: Focus on High Margin Products: About 50% of the two-wheeler customers buy high class products (products of executive and best segment motorcycles). Limits on these products are higher. BAL should accept a thoughtful strategy of concentrating on executive and best section motorbikes and three-wheelers, and is plummeting its essential on lower-end of motorbikes and scooters section. High margin products-Pulsar, Discover and Avenger. Low margin products Platina, Scooters and Mopeds. Bajaj cumulative competition in the economy section and limited scope from cost saving events, it is believed this strategy of concentrating on higher margin products would allow the company in retentive its operating margins. CONCIUSION: It has been more than 50 years currently that bikes have been ruling the Indian automobile segment. In 1955, the Indian government wanted durable and dependable motorbikes for its Military and forces to patrol the rough border thoroughfares. The first lot of 350cc Bullet the wonderful motorbike in India of all times, from the Royal Enfield Company of UK were conventional and collected at Chennai. The latest model launched new Pulsar 220cc, 135cc Discover 135cc, 100cc also increase better value in two wheeler markets. Its effect on Bajaj auto business. Rahul Bajaj chairman of Bajaj two wheeler. They change many models that increase company growth. Company CEO S. Sridhar change Forman, mechanical, technical staff product quality to improve bike brand. Since then, bikes in India have been prosperous as a two wheelers segment, and Indian bikes ahead on popularity all crossways the world.

Greek Statues And the Olympics :: essays research papers

The time has come again for Olympics games to begin. Organizers of the Olympics must choose the finest statues from a certain time period; they chose to decorate with the Classical period. They believed that the Classical period would best decorate the course of the marathon because they believe that the Classical statues characterize both modern and ancient values the best. The three Classical statutes that would best signify both ancient and modern values would be: The Charioteer from Delphi, The Discus Thrower, and Zeus/Poseidon. These three Classical statutes would best depict both modern and western values because of their characteristics of determination, freedom of expression/language, as well as their perfection of form.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first statue to decorate the course of the marathon would be The Charioteer from Delphi. The Charioteer of Delphi is one of the most important sculptures to represent the course because he exemplifies the idealized realism through the expression on his face; his facial expression basically summarizes the moment of victory in a race. However he doesn’t show an expression/emotion because of his determination to be victorious. The athletic Charioteer’s form lets him stand and stare with a natural ease that allows him to concentrate, and allow him to be triumphant.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The next statue to line the course of the marathon would be the Discus Thrower. This statue seems to be perfect depiction of a beautiful athletic body. This sculpture catches the athlete in motion; in the peak of his back swing. Although he has no facial expression, you can tell by the way of his form of movement and weight shift, that he is trying hard to put his body in a powerful rotation to give the discus immense speed. He is depiction of a beautiful athletic body because of his muscles and his perfect form; which is what people in today’s society strive for and think is the ideal body.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Lastly, the next statue to line the marathon course would be the statue of Zeus (or Poseidon). This statue provides the look of power because it is an open statue, ready to throw a lightning bolt, or a trident. Again, the facial expression is blank, and the weight shift is extreme to show that the body is in motion.

Ethics of end of life care Essay

Ethics often play a big role in end of life care in terminally ill people, such as the case of Hassan Rasouli, a man who was left with brain damage following surgery. Doctors determined that the man had no quality of life and that they had intended to remove him from life support measures that were necessary to keep him alive. His family quickly objected stating that they wanted him to remain on life support as in there Muslim religion it was imperative to preserve life. Doctors insisted that he should be removed, as there were no signs of life without artificial means, that the facial movements his family thought to be Mr. Rasouli smiling at them were just involuntary movements. The doctors feel that keeping the man on life support is inhumane verses letting him pass peacefully. The doctors have taken the case to the courts. This is an issues that is very common in todays times, with multiple factors playing a part from old age to terminal diseases, many people enact advance directives requarding their end of life care removing the debate of what their wishes were. The courts sided with the family and allowed the man to remain on artificial life support. An evaluation by a neurologist with the University of Western Ontario’s Brain and Mind Institute, found that Mr. Rasouli did in fact have some neurological function and therefor he was declared minimally conscious and not in a persistive vegetative state, however there is not a large difference in the two.

Why Study Humanities

Allison Humanities-?is a study of human culture with a great emphasis of history and art; further broken down into disciplines as music, performing art, theatre, religion, and languages. It is a study of what people have created and accomplished over a vast period of time. Nowhere in the definition of humanities have I seen science or medicine as sub study to humanities; maybe because science existed before human beings, but they were privileged to uncover and reveal to the rest of the World the new scientific laws.However, studying Humanities I would consider science piece as well, because it is also another significant achievement of the intelligent species. Traveling is one of my favorite types of vacation. Every year I try to visit a different country or two. Summer of 2014 was packed with lots of new experiences, mixed emotions, new knowledge, and of course new perspectives of different cultures.This summer I had an opportunity to travel to Israel. There I visited places like De ad Sea, Red Sea, Tell Aviva, Cashed and Mediterranean Sea, drove through two historically important deserts, the Judea Desert and The Desert of Engel, and of course Jerusalem, the city most desired and finally visited and explored. Jerusalem, especially the Old City is a heritage of three different religions and a multitude of different nations.The place that I wanted to visit the most was the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, place that commemorates the hill where Jesus Christ was crucified and His tomb where He was buried. This site is controlled by The Greek Orthodox Church, but people from many different religious backgrounds visit the church. What I found absolutely amusing is that there are no descriptions inside the church of the exhibits. Only during my second visit to the church I realized that Goliath (the hill of crucifixion) was located inside the church.When I inquired about the reason why there are no descriptions, I was told that guides from different religious background s are telling their own story from their religious perspective, and give the exhibit their own cultural name. Another place that I totally fell in love with was The Mount of Olives. It is located outside of the Old City of Jerusalem. The Jewish tradition says that Jesus' second coming will be on The Mount of Olives and the resurrection of the dead will occur at that time, thus many Jews want to be buried on the mountain.From the top mountain the view to the humongous cemetery opens up that is a result of the traditional belief. Muslim heritage also believe that Jesus will return to The Mount of Olives and have buried there their best soldiers who would stop Jesus from coming when the resurrection of the dead occurs. The New Testament of the Bible also mentions The Mount of Olives as the place where Jesus cried for His people. Visiting Jerusalem was a dream off lifetime. I attempted to go there in 2004 for the Why Study Humanities Allison Humanities-?is a study of human culture with a great emphasis of history and art; further broken down into disciplines as music, performing art, theatre, religion, and languages. It is a study of what people have created and accomplished over a vast period of time. Nowhere in the definition of humanities have I seen science or medicine as sub study to humanities; maybe because science existed before human beings, but they were privileged to uncover and reveal to the rest of the World the new scientific laws.However, studying Humanities I would consider science piece as well, because it is also another significant achievement of the intelligent species. Traveling is one of my favorite types of vacation. Every year I try to visit a different country or two. Summer of 2014 was packed with lots of new experiences, mixed emotions, new knowledge, and of course new perspectives of different cultures.This summer I had an opportunity to travel to Israel. There I visited places like De ad Sea, Red Sea, Tell Aviva, Cashed and Mediterranean Sea, drove through two historically important deserts, the Judea Desert and The Desert of Engel, and of course Jerusalem, the city most desired and finally visited and explored. Jerusalem, especially the Old City is a heritage of three different religions and a multitude of different nations.The place that I wanted to visit the most was the Church of the Holy Sepulcher, place that commemorates the hill where Jesus Christ was crucified and His tomb where He was buried. This site is controlled by The Greek Orthodox Church, but people from many different religious backgrounds visit the church. What I found absolutely amusing is that there are no descriptions inside the church of the exhibits. Only during my second visit to the church I realized that Goliath (the hill of crucifixion) was located inside the church.When I inquired about the reason why there are no descriptions, I was told that guides from different religious background s are telling their own story from their religious perspective, and give the exhibit their own cultural name. Another place that I totally fell in love with was The Mount of Olives. It is located outside of the Old City of Jerusalem. The Jewish tradition says that Jesus' second coming will be on The Mount of Olives and the resurrection of the dead will occur at that time, thus many Jews want to be buried on the mountain.From the top mountain the view to the humongous cemetery opens up that is a result of the traditional belief. Muslim heritage also believe that Jesus will return to The Mount of Olives and have buried there their best soldiers who would stop Jesus from coming when the resurrection of the dead occurs. The New Testament of the Bible also mentions The Mount of Olives as the place where Jesus cried for His people. Visiting Jerusalem was a dream off lifetime. I attempted to go there in 2004 for the

What Are NCAA Divisions Division 1 vs 2 vs 3

What Are NCAA Divisions Division 1 vs 2 vs 3 SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Generally speaking, NCAA divisions separate schools by the level of competition and the resources of their athletic departments. Most collegiate sporting events you see on television, from March Madness to the College World Series, are competitions between Division I schools. Division I offers the highest level of competition and Division I schools' athletic departments have the biggest budgets. Division III is the lowest level of competition in the NCAA, and Division III schools tend to have the smallest athletic department budgets. In this article, I'll break down the differences between NCAA divisions to give you a better idea of what separates Division I, II, and III schools. For those of you who wish to participate in intercollegiate athletics, you can get an idea of which division would best suit your interests and abilities. For those of you who don’t want to compete but care about sports, you can use this guide to determine if the division of a college’s sports teams will be a determining factor for you when selecting a college. What Is the NCAA? The NCAA is the National Collegiate Athletic Association. It's the major governing body for intercollegiate athletics. More than 1200 colleges and universities are members of the NCAA. It's a "non-profit" organization whose revenue in 2012-2013 was $912 million. What Are the NCAA's Responsibilities? The NCAA's primary responsibilities are to oversee championships and to enforce and establish rules for its member institutions. Many NCAA rules deal with financial aid for athletes, recruiting, and determining athlete eligibility. Additionally, the NCAA is responsible for changes to the rules of some of the sports that it governs. NCAA member institutions are divided into 3 divisions: Division I, II, and III. For football, Division I is further divided into Football Bowl Subdivision schools (FBS) and Football Championship Subdivision Schools (FCS). The purpose of the divisions is to create parity and a more level playing field in intercollegiate sports. Also, the existence of divisions gives smaller schools with fewer resources the opportunity to compete for championships. There is prestige and publicity associated with competing in NCAA sports, especially at the highest levels in the major sports. For example, Butler, a somewhat unknown school in Indianapolis previously, received $639 million of publicity by reaching the final game of the NCAA men's Division I basketball playoffs in 2010. Colleges want the opportunity for the exposure and prestige that NCAA participation can give them. Generally, the higher the division, the more possible publicity a school can receive through its athletics program. Even at the lower levels, though, NCAA sports programs generate publicity and attract students (and their tuitions) from across the world. Let's go into further depth about each of the NCAA divisions to determine the differences between them. Division I Division I schools have the biggest student bodies, the largest athletic budgets, and the most athletic scholarships. More than 350 schools that field more than 6,000 teams providing opportunities to more than 170,000 student-athletes are members of NCAA Division I. All of the major sports conferences, including the SEC, Big 10, Pac 12, and ACC are composed of Division I schools. Ivy League Institutions are Division I, but they don't offer athletic scholarships. The Ivy League schools are Brown, Columbia, Cornell, Dartmouth, Harvard, the University of Pennsylvania, Princeton, and Yale. Rules for Division I Schools The NCAA sets standards for its member institutions to meet in order for a school to reach or maintain Division I status. These rules are set to ensure competitive balance and gender equity. Also, there are specific rules for football and basketball. Because those are the sports that generate the most revenue, they're more closely monitored, and the disparity between the haves and have-nots in those sports is much greater. Division I schools have to sponsor at least seve sports for men and seven sports for women (or six for men and eight for women). Each playing season (fall, winter, and spring) has to be represented by each gender. For sports other than football and basketball, Division I schools must play 100% of the minimum number of contests against Division I opponents. Anything over the minimum number of games has to be 50% Division I. Men's and women's basketball teams have to play all but two games against Division I teams. Men's basketball teams must play 1/3 of their games in their home arenas. Division I schools must meet minimum financial aid awards for their athletics program, and there are maximum athletic financial aid awards for each sport that a Division I school can't exceed. FBS (Football Bowl Subdivision) The FBS is the highest level of collegiate football. FBS schools participate in bowl games. There is an obscene amount of money in FBS football, so much so that the highest paid FBS coaches make $7 million annually. In 2014, Forbes valued the University of Texas football team at $131 million. FBS teams have to meet minimum attendance requirements. An FBS team must average 15,000 people in actual or paid attendance per home game. Attendance requirements must be met once in a rolling two-year period. In 2014, average attendance for an FBS home game was 44,190. If a team can't even average 15,000 people, most likely it can't be competitive with other FBS teams. There are both public and private colleges in the FBS. Examples of private FBS schools include Stanford, Notre Dame, Duke, and Northwestern. Examples of public FBS schools include Alabama, Oklahoma, UCLA, and Michigan. The University of Alabama football team having some fun with President Obama FCS (Football Championship Subdivision) FCS is the next highest level of collegiate football after FBS. FCS schools participate in an NCAA-run championship. FCS teams do not need to meet minimum attendance requirements, but just so you can compare the attendance figures with those of FBS schools, the 2014 average FCS home game attendance was 7,666. Examples of FCS private schools include Harvard, Princeton, Dartmouth, and Colgate. Examples of FCS public schools include Cal Poly San Luis Obispo, UC Davis, North Dakota State University, and Illinois State University. Division II Almost 300 schools are part of Division II. Division II schools still offer athletic scholarships, but there are fewer scholarships than in Division I. Full athletic scholarships are more common in Division I; most Division II athletes receive partial athletic scholarships. The schools and athletic department budgets are smaller in Division II than in Division I. While Division I schools often travel nationally to compete, regional rivalries dominate the schedules of Division II. Examples of Division II schools include UCSD, University of West Florida, Northern Michigan University, Oklahoma Baptist University, and Valdosta State University. Rules for Division II Schools Just like for Division I schools, the NCAA sets standards for Division II schools in order to maintain competitive balance, opportunities for all athletes, and gender equity. Division II schools have to sponsor at least five sports for men and five for women (or four for men and six for women), with two team sports for each gender, and each playing season represented by each gender. Each sport has contest and participant minimums. Football and men's and women's basketball must play at least 50% of their games against Division II, FBS, or FCS opponents. Unlike Division I, there are no attendance requirements for football or arena game requirements for basketball. There are maximum financial aid awards for each sport. Division III Division III is the largest of all of the NCAA divisions. In Division III, there are 444 institutions and more than 170,000 student-athletes. A key difference in Division III is that there are no athletic scholarships. However, a majority of the athletes are on some form of academic or need-based aid. Also, there are shorter practice hours and less travel for games in D III. In Division III, the emphasis is on the value of competing in sports to the participant. There is less of a focus on generating revenue or creating events for spectators. Examples of Division III schools include Babson College, California Institute of Technology, Emory, Eastern Connecticut State University, and the University of Rochester. Cal Tech, home of The Big Bang Theory's Sheldon Cooper, is a Division III school. Rules for Division III Schools The rules for Division III are designed to maintain gender equity and to ensure that schools offer a minimum number of opportunities to all athletes. Division III schools have to sponsor at least five sports for men and five for women, with two team sports for each gender, and each playing season represented by each gender. There are contest and participant minimums for each sport. Major Differences Between Divisions Division I is the most prestigious, has the most money, and the highest caliber of athletes. Division I schools also are the largest on average. Division II still offers scholarships, but there are fewer, and Division II schools typically have fewer athletic department funds and fewer sports teams than Division I schools. There are an average of 18 sports at Division I schools and 15 at Division II. Division III offers no athletic scholarships, tends to have the lowest level of competition, but the highest number of participants across all divisions. Division III schools offer an average of 18 sports per school. Also, Division III has the highest average percentage of the student body participating in sports. Here's a breakdown by the numbers of these differences between NCAA divisions. Generally, the biggest disparities between divisions are in the traditional revenue generating sports of football and men's basketball. While the average attendance of a home football game at an FBS school is over 44,000, the average attendance of a home football game at a Division III school is less than 2,000. Many FBS head coaches receive multi-million dollar salaries. Meanwhile, many Division III head football coaches also have teaching positions at their colleges to supplement their incomes. It's important to note that just because a school is in a lower division doesn't mean that its student body doesn't care about sports or that the school is not as concerned with its athletes. Many Division II and III schools have passionate fan bases, especially in the high profile sports and for teams that regularly compete for championships. Other Intercollegiate Sports Associations Besides the NCAA, there are two other governing bodies for intercollegiate sports, the NAIA and the NJCAA. The National Association of Intercollegiate Athletics, or the NAIA, has about 300 member institutions. NAIA schools are smaller and have relatively low athletic department budgets, roughly on par with Division III schools. However, unlike NCAA Division III, NAIA schools do offer athletic scholarships. Examples of NAIA schools include Morningside College, Mayville State University, and Florida Memorial University. The NAIA doesn't have the prestige of the NCAA, but it offers an alternative for smaller schools that want to compete. The National Junior College Athletics Association, or NJCAA, is the governing board for sports at two year colleges. Members of the NJCAA can also offer athletic scholarships. Scholarship Limits By Sport and Division For those of you who are hoping to get an athletic scholarship, I'm linking to the following chart to give you an idea of the number of athletic scholarships available for each sport in each division. If you're trying to get an athletic scholarship for college, this chart can inform you of your available opportunities, and you can see the differences in available athletic scholarships by division. Some of these numbers have changed slightly, but they're roughly accurate. You may notice that, for most sports, there aren't an equal number of scholarships available in the same sport in the same division for men and women. The primary reason for this is because the NCAA, for both ethical and legal reasons, wants schools to give roughly the same amount of aid to men and women; because there are so many scholarships for football, there are more maximum scholarships for women in most of the other sports. Also, even though there are more scholarships in some sports at the NJCAA level than at the NCAA level, keep in mind that the scholarships are worth significantly more at the NCAA level because two-year colleges are much cheaper. Finally, on the chart you'll see the term "head count sport" next to some sports. A head count sport can only offer full scholarships. The head count sports are FBS football, Division I basketball, Division I women's gymnastics, and Division I women's volleyball. Most sports aren't head count sports and also offer partial scholarships. Final Note: Each Division Has Advantages and Disadvantages There are pros and cons of each NCAA division, and you can determine which division may be best for you based on your priorities and aspirations. If you are an athlete, you should be realistic about your current skill level, your athletic goals, and your desire to compete. If you want to go to the Olympics or become a professional in your sport, perhaps you should attend a Division I school and test yourself against the top athletes. If you're only being recruited by Division II schools, maybe it's in your best interest to attend one of them and have a better chance to compete, rather than walking on at a Division I school and possibly not getting a chance to participate in a real game. If you're a sports fan, maybe you'd enjoy the environment at Division III sporting events where you can get really close to the action and often for free. Or, maybe you would prefer to go to an FBS school to get the opportunity to be in a stadium with 100,000 other screaming fans and be able to regularly watch your school compete on national television. Ideally, athletics should only be one factor in determining your college decision, and it should be less of a concern to you than academics. However, sports can play a huge role in your collegiate experience. The NCAA division of your school does play a part in determining what your college experience will be like. What's Next? Now that you're familiar with what separates NCAA divisions, you can find a full listing of Division I, II, and III schools by state. Also, if you're an athlete, learn about how the recruiting process works. For the NCAA clearinghouse, find out what SAT scores and ACT scores ou need to qualify. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points?We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Should Freelancers Write for Free

Should Freelancers Write for Free This past year, I finally gained the courage to launch into a full-time freelance writing career. While I’m happy, I feel a bit guilty because I arrived in part Scams Aplenty Anyone who’s dipped their toes into the freelancing pool knows that writers are subject to more scammers than you knew existed. Sometimes it feels as though an aspiring writer is a frightened fawn, unprotected in a forest full of hungry wolves. Many writers settle for low pay, assuming that their work isn’t worth a monetary reward, and agree to write that 500-word post about the 10 Best Ways to (insert here), hoping that it leads to something better. Others find themselves in the ghettos of the content mills, writing uninspiring SEO garbage for barely enough to buy lunch. First, admit that your writing has value, then kick these types to the curb. This type of free writing won’t lead to better opportunities. My Freebie Exception When starting out, I found myself in a situation familiar to many beginning writers: I had no clips. I pitched and queried my heart out, with not so much as a response from a paying market. Meanwhile, I found myself interested in local politics and showed up regularly to any political gathering that I could. That’s when I had a light-bulb moment. One of the rallies I attended concerned homelessness issues in the city of Boston. I was familiar with a local publication, The Spare Change News, that focused on news affecting the homeless. Figuring that they would be interested in the rally, I emailed a quick pitch to the editor. Within a half hour, he answered me back. I wrote up a summary of the rally, interviewed a few folks and jumped in elation as I finally saw my name in print. Since then, I’ve attracted regular clients in the journalism field using my Spare Change clips. I hadn’t originally intended on using the article for anything. I just wanted to write. But in this case, volunteering my time paid off. When to Write for Free There are always times when it’s okay to break the rules and writing for free is no exception. But if youre going to write for free, the work should satisfy the following conditions: 1. You personally support the organization Many small non-profits genuinely don’t have funds to pay writers. These organizations rely on volunteer work to carry out their operations. Just as in any volunteer work, donate your writing time if you support their cause. 2. The organization doesn’t profit off your work No one should make money off your work if you don’t. It doesn’t matter if your work will be read 3. The work will benefit your portfolio Make sure that the task aligns with your writing goals. If you aspire to be a healthcare blogger, it makes no sense to take on a free job writing about Pokemon Go. Think about the clips that your ideal client would like to see. Your time is the scarcest resource of all. Value your time as you would your money and never allow others to take advantage of your talents.

Spheres Where Your English Literature and Creative Writing Degree Will Come Handy

Spheres Where Your English Literature and Creative Writing Degree Will Come Handy Spheres Where Your English Literature and Creative Writing Degree Will Come Handy In thÐ µ PrÃ'â€"nÃ' Ã µtÐ ¾n RÐ µvÃ'â€"Ð µwÃ'• GuÃ'â€"dÐ µ tÐ ¾ CÐ ¾llÐ µgÐ µ Majors (2008), English LÃ'â€"tÐ µrÐ °turÐ µ and creative writing degree wÐ °Ã'• ranked among thÐ µ tÐ ¾Ã'€ tÐ µn college mÐ °jÐ ¾rÃ'• Ã'â€"n thÐ µ US. Does a course meant Ð ¾nlÃ'Æ' for literature Ð µnthuÃ'•Ã'â€"Ð °Ã'•tÃ'•? HÐ ¾w dÐ ¾Ã µÃ'• grÐ °duÐ °tÃ'â€"ng wÃ'â€"th Ð °n EnglÃ'â€"Ã'•h mÐ °jÐ ¾r degree can help you Ã'â€"n opening up more employment opportunities Ð °nd Ã'€rÐ ¾fÐ µÃ'•Ã'•Ã'â€"Ð ¾nÐ °l Ð °dvÐ °nÃ' Ã µmÐ µnt? Being a major at English, Ã'â€"nvÐ ¾lvÐ µÃ'• studying English Ð °nd lÃ'â€"tÐ µrÐ °rÃ'Æ' wÐ ¾rkÃ'• frÐ ¾m varied Ã'€Ð µrÃ'•Ã'€Ð µÃ' tÃ'â€"vÐ µÃ'•. The literary Ð °nÐ °lÃ'Æ'Ã'•Ã'â€"Ã'• dÐ µvÐ µlÐ ¾Ã'€Ã'• a Ã'•tudÐ µntÃ'• comprehension, rÐ µÃ °Ã'•Ð ¾nÃ'â€"ng, and critical thinking. Interpreting any lÃ'â€"tÐ µrÐ °rÃ'Æ' work requires Ã' Ã °rÐ µful understanding Ð ¾f the tÐ µxt and thÐ µ ability to   communicate Ã'â€"tÃ'• historical, cultural, Ð °nd Ã'•Ð ¾Ã' Ã'â€"Ð µtÐ °l significance effectively. Such a feature should be peculiar to all people to be able to express their thoughts. Graduating in English with a creative writing degree course requÃ'â€"rÐ µÃ'• Ð °t lÐ µÃ °Ã'•t 120 Ã' rÐ µdÃ'â€"t hours wÐ ¾rth of vÐ °rÃ'â€"Ð ¾uÃ'• Ã' Ã ¾urÃ'•Ð µÃ'• Ã'•uÃ' h Ð °Ã'• lÃ'â€"tÐ µrÐ °rÃ'Æ' hÃ'â€"Ã'•tÐ ¾rÃ'Æ' Ð °nd thÐ µÃ ¾rÃ'Æ', language dÐ µvÐ µlÐ ¾Ã'€mÐ µnt, EnglÃ'â€"Ã'•h Ã' Ã ¾mÃ'€Ð ¾Ã'•Ã'â€"tÃ'â€"Ð ¾n, speech Ã'•tudÃ'â€"Ð µÃ'•, Ã' rÐ µÃ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ Ð °Ã'• well as buÃ'•Ã'â€"nÐ µÃ'•Ã'• wrÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"ng. FÐ ¾r mÐ °nÃ'Æ' Ã'•tudÐ µntÃ'•, choosing a college major mÐ µÃ °nÃ'• Ã' hÐ ¾Ã ¾Ã'•Ã'â€"ng Ð ¾nÐ µ that will guarantee high-paying jobs Ã'â€"mmÐ µdÃ'â€"Ð °tÐ µlÃ'Æ' Ð °ftÐ µr grÐ °duÐ °tÃ'â€"Ð ¾n. The English language and literature dÐ µgrÐ µÃ µ Ã'€rÐ ¾vÃ'â€"dÐ µs avenues tÐ ¾ mÐ ¾rÐ µ possibilities Ã'â€"n the workplace. EnglÃ'â€"Ã'•h majors Ð °rÐ µ Ð °blÐ µ tÐ ¾ thrÃ'â€"vÐ µ in almost Ð °nÃ'Æ' fÃ'â€"Ð µld. MÐ °Ã'•Ã'• Media Being creative is a must for any job that concerns mass media. YÐ ¾ur English major wÃ'â€"ll help you acquire a brÐ ¾Ã °d Ð °rrÐ °Ã'Æ' Ð ¾f Ã'•kÃ'â€"llÃ'• that Ð °rÐ µ tÐ °Ã'â€"lÐ ¾rÐ µd tÐ ¾ mÐ µÃ µt thÐ µ nÐ µÃ µdÃ'• of the media Ð °nd Ã' Ã ¾mmunÃ'â€"Ã' Ã °tÃ'â€"Ð ¾nÃ'• Ã'â€"nduÃ'•trÃ'â€"Ð µÃ'• without having to Ã'•Ã'€Ð µÃ' Ã'â€"Ð °lÃ'â€"Ã'•Ð µ Ã'â€"n a particular mÐ µdÃ'â€"Ð ° area. Theater ArtÃ'• Creative Writing and English Literature degrees help Ð µxÃ'€Ð °nd Ã'Æ'Ð ¾ur skills, thÐ µÃ ¾rÐ µtÃ'â€"Ã' Ã °l undÐ µrÃ'•tÐ °ndÃ'â€"ng Ð °nd Ð µxÃ'€Ð µrÃ'â€"Ð µnÃ' Ã µ Ã'â€"n thÐ µÃ °trÐ µ Ð °nd Ã'€Ð µrfÐ ¾rmÐ °nÃ' Ã µ practice. It will help you take on the the skills Ð °nd Ã'€rÐ ¾Ã' Ã µÃ'•Ã'•Ð µÃ'• Ã'â€"n Ð °Ã' tÃ'â€"ng, dÃ'â€"rÐ µÃ' tÃ'â€"ng, dÐ µvÃ'â€"Ã'•Ã'â€"ng, wrÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"ng, drama, Ã' rÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"Ã' Ã °l analysis, stage management Ð °nd theatre production PublÃ'â€"Ã'  RÐ µlÐ °tÃ'â€"Ð ¾nÃ'• You will be involved in Ã' Ã ¾mmunÃ'â€"Ã' Ã °tÃ'â€"Ð ¾n and theory as well as in carrying out studies thÐ °t Ã'€rÐ ¾mÐ ¾tÐ µ your Ð °nÐ °lÃ'Æ'tÃ'â€"Ã' Ã °l and rÐ µÃ'•Ð µÃ °rÃ' h Ã'•kÃ'â€"llÃ'•. You will be able to use your professional Ã'•kÃ'â€"llÃ'• Ã'â€"n wrÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"ng, media and Ã'•tÐ °kÐ µhÐ ¾ldÐ µr relations, Ã'•trÐ °tÐ µgÃ'Æ' Ð °nd research, wÃ'â€"th an emphasis Ð ¾n problem Ã'•Ð ¾lvÃ'â€"ng, creativity, project Ð °nd rÐ µlÐ °tÃ'â€"Ð ¾nÃ'•hÃ'â€"Ã'€ mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µmÐ µnt. TÐ µÃ °Ã' hÃ'â€"ng Your degree will enable you to pass your skills and passion on students of all ages, involving them in classical literature analysis and helping them to become creative writers, teaching grammar, vocabulary and all other things. WrÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"ng Your exposure to great writers and to the reading that you have done while attending courses will be of great help when you do some writing on your own. RÐ µÃ'•Ð µÃ °rÃ' h-BÐ °Ã'•Ð µd InduÃ'•trÃ'â€"Ð µÃ'• Such aÃ'• Marketing Ð °nd AdvÐ µrtÃ'â€"Ã'•Ã'â€"ng Your ability to spin words and being a wordsmith will help you do your best. English mÐ °jÐ ¾rÃ'• train tÐ ¾ bÐ µ Ã' Ã ¾mmunÃ'â€"Ã' Ã °tÐ ¾rÃ'•, Ã'â€"n bÐ ¾th wrÃ'â€"ttÐ µn Ð °nd Ã'•Ã'€Ð ¾kÐ µn formats, mÐ °kÃ'â€"ng thÐ µm Ã'â€"ndÃ'â€"Ã'•Ã'€Ð µnÃ'•Ð °blÐ µ to Ð °nÃ'Æ' buÃ'•Ã'â€"nÐ µÃ'•Ã'• or Ð ¾rgÐ °nÃ'â€"zÐ °tÃ'â€"Ð ¾n. A background Ã'â€"n the English lÐ °nguÐ °gÐ µ Ð °nd literature Ð °ddÃ'• Ã' rÐ µdÃ'â€"bÃ'â€"lÃ'â€"tÃ'Æ' to almost Ð °nÃ'Æ' Ã'€rÐ ¾fÐ µÃ'•Ã'•Ã'â€"Ð ¾n, Ð µÃ'•Ã'€Ð µÃ' Ã'â€"Ð °llÃ'Æ' fÐ ¾r those Ã'â€"n uÃ'€Ã'€Ð µr mÐ °nÐ °gÐ µmÐ µnt Ð °nd administrative lÐ µvÐ µlÃ'•. FrÐ ¾m reading Ã' lÐ °Ã'•Ã'•Ã'â€"Ã'  tÐ ¾ Ã'€Ð ¾Ã'•tmÐ ¾dÐ µrn literary wÐ ¾rkÃ'• thrÐ ¾ughÐ ¾ut English hÃ'â€"Ã'•tÐ ¾rÃ'Æ', studying them Ã' lÐ ¾Ã'•Ð µlÃ'Æ' Ð °nd wrÃ'â€"tÃ'â€"ng tÐ µÃ' hnÃ'â€"Ã' Ã °l and Ã' rÐ µÃ °tÃ'â€"vÐ µ Ð °nÐ °lÃ'Æ'Ã'•Ð µÃ'•, EnglÃ'â€"Ã'•h mÐ °jÐ ¾rÃ'• Ã' Ã °n apply for a wide Ð °rrÐ °Ã'Æ' of positions.

Contract Law and the Law of Negligence Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Contract Law and the Law of Negligence - Essay Example As such, every individual is under a duty of care towards others to employ reasonable care, in order to circumvent causing injury to them or their possessions (Judicial Education Center, 2013). Alec has a duty towards Kelly, just like that towards any other person on the walkway. In some instances, the act or omission of the defendant could cause damage to the claimant. However, the claimant may not have any action, because the affected interest may not be provided with the protection of the law. This situation is termed as harm without legal wrong or damnum sine injuria (Cooke, 2011, p. 5). Alec’s rash driving resulting in damage to Kelly’s shop attracts the provisions of the law of negligence. A defendant could be made liable for committing a tort, if the act had been intentional. This usually takes place in crime. Liability is also attached to the defendant, if the act was negligent, although unintentional. This is because the defendant had failed to fulfil his duty of care towards the petitioner (Judicial Education Center, 2013). In our case, Alec has failed to perform his duty towards Kelly, although it was unintentional. In Page v Smith, Lord Hope described primary victims as individuals who had undergone psychiatric injury. Such injury should have been the outcome of the fear or distress resulting from the accident that had taken place due to the negligence of the defendant or its immediate aftermath (Turton, 2008, p. 1014). Kelly suffered mental distress, the next day after the incident. She cannot take recourse under the category of primary victim for psychiatric injury. Whether there was a breach of duty From the legal perspective, negligence is the breach of a duty to ensure care, while committing an act. It is also the failure to act in the manner that a prudent or reasonable individual would have acted under circumstances that were similar. Such action or failure must be the proximate cause for the injury caused, if the plaintiff is t o recover damages from the defendant. Some of the defences to a negligence action are, the assumption of risk or injury by the plaintiff, or the injury was due to the plaintiff’s negligence (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedia, 2011).A contractual relationship can generate an obligation to act with care. An instance of this is the duty of care assumed by a carrier to protect passengers and goods from injury or damage. In addition, the law presupposes that every person, in the ordinary course of conduct, is under a duty of care to abstain from injuring others. This duty, in every non – contractual situation, requires every individual to act as a reasonable person. If an injury occurs, despite such care being exercised, or due to circumstances that are beyond human control, then no compensation can be claimed. The doctrine of strict liability renders entities engaged in certain services and trades liable, even if the conduct is not negligent (Columbia Electronic Encyclopedi a, 2011). While deciding whether a breach of duty had taken place, the courts would evaluate the conduct of the defendant, with reference to what a reasonable person would have done under similar circumstances (Tingle, 2002, p. 1129) In Blyth v Birmingham Waterworks Co, it was opined that negligence was failure to do a thing, which a reasonable man would have done, in accordance with the considerations that normally regulate human conduct (Tingle, 2002, p. 1129). In our case, Alec, due to coming late, attempted to quickly cross

Predicting Seismic Activity with Lunar Cycles Research Paper

Predicting Seismic Activity with Lunar Cycles - Research Paper Example The observations that go against the claim will also be analyzed. Observations or logics by critics against these claims will be taken into account and these will be judged and arguments made as to the strength of these claims. In the end the credibility of the predictions will be based on the evidence collected by forces pointing in favor or against this claim. The paper will be considering the lunar cycles linked with seismic activity. Minor factors used by Jim Berkland will be mentioned but the main focus will be relationship between lunar cycles and seismic activity. Predicting Seismic Activity with Lunar Cycles Introduction The earthquakes have devastating potential. The process is researched upon in detail and various theories and factors are presented over the years. The most accepted model for earthquakes is the theory of plate tectonics. The model, however, needs to be updated and many other factors contributing to earthquake that has been observed over the years needs to be incorporated. Investigations for involvement of new forces possible in earthquake predictions are under process. Some of the new indicators include the changes in ionosphere, radon emissions (radioactive element Rn 86), Earth’s magnetic field displacement and even animal behavior. These are just few indicators. Research over the years has and numbers of facts indicate the involvement of sun and moon in triggering earthquakes. As by (Pasichnyk, 2002) â€Å"In Tome Three, plate tectonics, more commonly known as continental drift, was discussed that brought forth the understanding that electrostatic forces are at work in producing tectonic plates’ dynamics. This understanding correlates solar activity and lunar phases and cycles with the triggering of earthquakes†. The subject of earthquake prediction, however, has been a matter of intense debate. There does not seem to be a general consensus. Different papers by Wyss (1997), Geller (1997), Scholz (1997) demonstra te diversity of the subject. Various seismologists base their predictions on different factors and observations. These predictions as per (Allen, 1976) must â€Å"Specify time window, space window, magnitude window, some indication of author’s confidence in reliability of prediction, indication of chances of earthquake occurring anyway as a random event and must be written and presented in accessible form so that data on failures are as easily obtained as data on success†. Bases of Predictions by Jim Berkland Jim Berkland bases his earthquake predictions mainly on the effects of gravitational tugs of the moon, sun and other planets. He also takes into account animal behavior as an indicator for an upcoming earthquake. Berkland has accurately predicted tremors based on these factors. His logics for the effects of lunar cycles on Earth’s seismic activity are discussed as under and each factor is analyzed in detail. Tides The gravitational pull of the moon is respo nsible for the ocean tides. This pull also acts on the crust; however, the effect is not enough. Recent studies have shown correlation between tides and earthquakes. Study by (Cochran, 2004) describes this relation â€Å"Study using global data hinted at an earthquake-tide correlation, suggesting that reverse and normal earthquakes correlate either with shear stress or the trace of the stress†. This correlation as per studies and observations

Principles of Finance Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Principles of Finance - Essay Example When tax is reduced by some percentage it increases companys income by certain multiplier effect since tax is a leakage on income. When tax is reduced to 18%, the taxation will be 90.16pounds (Adams & Von, 2007). b) The assumption is subject to discussion in such a way that each of these methods has their strengths and weaknesses. Taking a case of dividend growth rate, empirical evidence shows that a company, which pays more dividends, has low growth rate. The main reason behind this is that most of its profits go to individual shareholders instead of being ploughed back to the business. This is practical evidence. However, most of the methods are theoretical and lack practicality (Halsey, R. F, 2012). Considering the case of net asset valuation, the method does not consider the future prospects of the company. In fact, these valuation methods depend on historical data, but in a business environment, different environmental factors lead to different outcomes. This is a limitation that begs the question whether the methods are practical because the business environment changes every day and cannot rely on historical data (Halsey, 2000). The book value approach in asset based method is practically unrealistic because the values of the fixed assets depend on sunk costs and relative depreciation. These values are of no relevance to any purchaser or seller (Von, et al., 2004). In considering replacement value, it is also of no practicality. This shows what it might cost to start a business, but this could be lower than the true value for successful business unless the estimation is also made for the value of goodwill and other current assets. In considering the P/E approach, it is not somehow practical. When you are buying a company it is for the entitlement of its future earnings not past earnings. This approach does not take into account turbulent economic times which make them very

Others Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Others - Essay Example Relative to other companies, we provide a flexible way of working, employees can choose a time to finish the work at home. In addition, our company also saves on the cost of renting office space and daily maintenance. This is because our devoted staffs are allowed to carry out their tasks in the comfort of their houses. In this case, the company makes provision for all logistic requirements to facilitate workers in their day to day activities. The world’s economic system is fast changing due to the roles that international trade and investment is playing in the system of economic development. Due to cultural and language barrier in terms of trade, investment and cooperation, emerging concepts of translation services has led to a number of successful international trade negotiations. Consistent with the long-standing predictions, available data reveals an increase in international trade negotiations across the globe. Many States and policymakers have already recognized the importance of cultural competence in facilitating effective communication during negotiations. Internet-based translation has become increasingly popular even though a pivot translation service is required to fully realize the translation between non-English languages through cascading different translation services. It is with great effort that e-translate have made it their priority to develop a content-based coordination that aims at maintaining the consistency of the word meaning during the translation services. The number of languages used in internet has shown a rapid increment. For instance, those using English comprise of 40 percent of all the internet users, Asian language users represent 26 percent, European language users represent more than 30 percent excluding English users, while other languages users represent nearly 20 percent. This trend has a greater influence on the requirement of translation services among non-English language users, as well as between

Li & Fung LTD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Li & Fung LTD - Essay Example The company also focuses on advancing its management as it has advertised staff for accounts receivable, inventory and collections, and accounts payable management. Li & Fung Ltd contributes to the performance in their global marketplaces. They do this by managing the supply chain for various consumer goods such as footwear, toys, accessories, and clothing. This covers everything including lining up of raw materials for manufacture, overseeing production, and assessing the performance of supply chain from the point of production to delivery in retailers’ destinations. With this role, the company gets a good reputation from its consumers as a reliable firm To achieve the goal of being a noticeably thriving company, Li & Fung Ltd ensures that its employees are committed to supreme operational standards and carrying out their duties with integrity. The company has good corporate governance practices since it has been emphasizing on accountability and transparency. Sustainability considerations are given first priority and it is embedded into its risk management systems and corporate policies. Li & Fung Ltd will definitely continue to lead in consumer goods due to its development capabilities and comprehensive design. Staff Reoporters. (2011). Li & Fung Li & Fung moves into Grand over; $1.1M Eden expansion planned. The Business Journal Retrieved from: http://www.bizjournals.com/triad/print- edition/2011/11/18/lf-moves-into-grandover-11m-eden.html?page=all

A report on your own IMC for the launch of a Renault car into a Essay

A report on your own IMC for the launch of a Renault car into a country of your choice - Essay Example The total German auto market improved to 832,222 cars in the Q1 of 2014, which was an increase of 6.8%, while the registration of new passenger vehicles increased by 5.6% in the same period (autonews.com, 2013: p1). This report details the marketing communication mix design and implementation for the launch of the Renault Clio in Germany. The objective of Renault’s advertising in Germany will be to communicate a repositioning message regarding the stylishness and safety of the Renault Clio. The Renault Clio has novel designs, coupled with vibrant colours (autospeedmarket.com, 2010: p1), which other safety cars in Germany lack. Because the German market has preferences for other brands of safety cars, it will be important to effectively target the audience by generating top-of-the-mind recall for the car in the safe passenger car category. The Renault Laguna II vehicle was one of the first cars to pass the safety test, which enhanced its popularity in the German market where the consumer trends have shown a preference for safety cars (ixpos.de, 2013: p1). The Renault Clio was voted among the most trustworthy, credible, and safe cars in Europe, while also being praised for its comfort. Moreover, the Renault Clio is more novel and trendy compared to German made cars like BMW. The increase in the registration of n ew passenger cars by 5.6% in 2014, coupled with safety-status accorded to the Clio in Europe, provides an opportunity for Renault in a safety-conscious country (autotrader.co.uk, 2013: p1). Given the safety-concept trend in the German car industry, in the recent past by consumers of passenger vehicles, Renault should communicate the safety message for the Clio to build brand conviction. The company should also position its car in a way that shows its suitability for young families, which will mean targeting the young German mother aged between twenty five and thirty five years

Li & Fung LTD Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Li & Fung LTD - Essay Example The company also focuses on advancing its management as it has advertised staff for accounts receivable, inventory and collections, and accounts payable management. Li & Fung Ltd contributes to the performance in their global marketplaces. They do this by managing the supply chain for various consumer goods such as footwear, toys, accessories, and clothing. This covers everything including lining up of raw materials for manufacture, overseeing production, and assessing the performance of supply chain from the point of production to delivery in retailers’ destinations. With this role, the company gets a good reputation from its consumers as a reliable firm To achieve the goal of being a noticeably thriving company, Li & Fung Ltd ensures that its employees are committed to supreme operational standards and carrying out their duties with integrity. The company has good corporate governance practices since it has been emphasizing on accountability and transparency. Sustainability considerations are given first priority and it is embedded into its risk management systems and corporate policies. Li & Fung Ltd will definitely continue to lead in consumer goods due to its development capabilities and comprehensive design. Staff Reoporters. (2011). Li & Fung Li & Fung moves into Grand over; $1.1M Eden expansion planned. The Business Journal Retrieved from: http://www.bizjournals.com/triad/print- edition/2011/11/18/lf-moves-into-grandover-11m-eden.html?page=all

Diwali Essay Example for Free

Diwali Essay Deepavali or Diwali, popularly known as the festival of lights, is a five-day Hindu festival[3] which starts on Dhanteras, celebrated on the thirteenth lunar day of Krishna paksha (dark fortnight) of the Hindu calendar month Ashwin and ends on Bhaubeej, celebrated on second lunar day of Shukla paksha of the Hindu calendar month Kartik. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra. In the Gregorian calendar, Diwali falls between mid-October and mid-November. Diwali is an official holiday in India,[4] Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad Tobago, Suriname, Malaysia, Singapore and Fiji. For Hindus, Diwali is one of the most important festivals of the year and is celebrated in families by performing traditional activities together in their homes. For Jains, Diwali marks the attainment of moksha or nirvana by Mahavira in 527 BC.[5][6] Arya Samajists, celebrate this day as Death Anniversary of Swami Dayanand Saraswati. They also celebrate this day as Shardiya Nav-Shasyeshti. The name Diwali or Divali is a contraction of deepavali which translates into row of lamps.[7] Diwali involves the lighting of small clay lamps filled with oil to signify the triumph of good over evil.[8] These lamps are kept on during the night and ones house is cleaned, both done in order to make the goddess Lakshmi feel welcome.[9] Firecrackers are burst because it is believed that it drives away evil spirits.[10][11][12] During Diwali, all the celebrants wear new clothes and share sweets and snacks with family members and friends. The festival starts with Dhanteras on which most Indian business communities begin their financial year. The second day of the festival is called the Naraka Chaturdasi. Amavasya, the third day of Diwali, marks the worship of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. The fourth day of Diwali is known as Kartika Shudda Padyami. The fifth day is referred to as Yama Dvitiya, and on this day sisters invite their brothers to their homes. Deepavali or Diwali, popularly known as the festival of lights, is a five-day Hindu festival[3] which starts on Dhanteras, celebrated on the thirteenth lunar day of Krishna  paksha (dark fortnight) of the Hindu calendar month Ashwin and ends on Bhaubeej, celebrated on second lunar day of Shukla paksha of the Hindu calendar month Kartik. Dhanteras usually falls eighteen days after Dussehra. In the Gregorian calendar, Diwali falls between mid-October and mid-November. Diwali is an official holiday in India,[4] Nepal, Sri Lanka, Myanmar, Mauritius, Guyana, Trinidad Tobago, Suriname, Malaysia, Singapore and Fiji. For Hindus, Diwali is one of the most important festivals of the year and is celebrated in families by performing traditional activities together in their homes. For Jains, Diwali marks the attainment of moksha or nirvana by Mahavira in 527 BC.[5][6] Arya Samajists, celebrate this day as Death Anniversary of Swami Dayanand Saraswati. They also celebrate this day as Shardiya Nav-Shasyeshti. The name Diwali or Divali is a contraction of deepavali which translates into row of lamps.[7] Diwali involves the lighting of small clay lamps filled with oil to signify the triumph of good over evil.[8] These lamps are kept on during the night and ones house is cleaned, both done in order to make the goddess Lakshmi feel welcome.[9] Firecrackers are burst because it is believed that it drives away evil spirits.[10][11][12] During Diwali, all the celebrants wear new clothes and share sweets and snacks with family members and friends. The festival starts with Dhanteras on which most Indian business communities begin their financial year. The second day of the festival is called the Naraka Chaturdasi. Amavasya, the third day of Diwali, marks the worship of Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth. The fourth day of Diwali is known as Kartika Shudda Padyami. The fifth day is referred to as Yama Dvitiya, and on this day sisters invite their brothers to their homes. It begins in late Ashvin (between September and October) and ends in early Kartika (between October and November). The days in Ashvin are in the Krishna Paksha (dark fortnight) of that month, while the days in Kartik are in its Shukla Paksha (bright fortnight). The first day is Dhan Teras. The last day is Yama  Dvitiya, which signifies the second day of the light half of Kartika. Each day of Diwali marks one celebration of the six principal stories associated with the festival. Hindus have several significant events associated with Diwali: The return of Rama after 14 years of Vanvas (exile). To welcome his return, diyas (ghee lamps) are lit in total of 14. The killing of Narakasura: Celebrated as Naraka Chaturdashi, one day before Diwali, it commemorates the killing of the evil demon Narakasura, who wreaked havoc. In different versions, either Krishna or Krishnas wife Satyabhama killed Narakasura during the Dwapara yuga. Other events associated with Diwali include: Return of Pandavas after 12 years of Vanvas and one year of agyatavas (living incognito). Diwali being the festival of lights, across India people celebrate it via symbolic diyas or kandils (colourful paper lanterns) as an integral part of Diwali decorations. Diwali celebrations are spread over five days, from Dhanteras to Bhaiduj. In some places like Maharashtra it starts with Vasu Baras. All the days except Diwali are named according to their designation in the Hindu calendar. The days are: 1.Govatsa Dwadashi or Vasu Baras (27 Ashvin or 12 Krishna Paksha Ashvin): Go means cow and vatsa means calf. Dwadashi or Baras means the 12th day. On this day the cow and calf are worshiped. The story associated with this day is that of King Prithu, son of the tyrant King Vena. Due to the ill rule of Vena, there was a terrible famine and earth stopped being fruitful. Prithu chased the earth, who is usually represented as cow, and ‘milked’ her, meaning that he brought prosperity to the land. 2.Dhanatrayodashi or Dhan teras or Dhanwantari Triodasi (28 Ashvin or 13 Krishna Paksha Ashvin): Dhana means wealth and Trayodashi means 13th day. This day falls on the 13th day of the second half of the lunar month. It is considered an auspicious day for buying utensils and gold, hence the name ‘Dhana’. This day is regarded as the Jayanti (Birth Anniversary) of God Dhanvantari, the Physician of Gods, who came out during Samudra manthan, the churning of the great ocean by the gods and the demons. 3.Naraka Chaturdashi (29 Ashvin or 14 Krishna Paksha Ashvin): Chaturdashi is the 14th day This was the day on which the demon Narakasura was killed by Krishna – an incarnation of Vishnu. It signifies the victory of good over evil and light over darkness (Gujarati: Kali Chaudas, Rajasthan : Roop Chaudas). In southern India, this is the actual day of festivities. Hindus wake up before dawn, have a fragrant oil bath and dress in new clothes. They light small lamps all around the house and draw elaborate kolams /rangolis outside their homes. They perform a special puja with offerings to Krishna or Vishnu, as he liberated the world from the demon Narakasura on this day. It is believed that taking a bath before sunrise, when the stars are still visible in the sky is equivalent to taking a bath in the holy Ganges. After the puja, children burst firecrackers heralding the defeat of the demon. As this is a day of rejoicing, many will have very elaborate breakfasts and lunches and meet family and friends. 4.Lakshmi Puja (30 Ashvin or 15 Krishna Paksha Ashvin): Lakshmi Puja marks the most important day of Diwali celebrations in North India. Hindu homes worship Lakshmi, the goddess of wealth, and Ganesh, the God of auspicious beginnings also known as the remover of obastacles, and then light deeyas (little clay pots) in the streets and homes to welcome prosperity and well-being. 5.Bali Pratipada and Govardhan Puja (1 Kartika or 1 Shukla Paksha Kartika) : In North India, this day is celebrated as Govardhan Puja, also called Annakoot, and is celebrated as the day Krishna – an incarnation of god Vishnu – defeated Indra and by the lifting of Govardhana hill to save his kinsmen and cattle from rain and floods. For Annakoot, large quantities of food are decorated symbolising the Govardhan hill lifted by Krishna. In Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka, it is celebrated as Bali-Pratipada or Bali Padyami. The day commemorates the victory of Vishnu in his dwarf form Vamana over the demon-king Bali, who was pushed into the patala. In Maharashtra, it is called Padava or Nava Diwas (new day). Men present gifts to thei r wives on this day. It is celebrated as the first day of the Vikram Samvat calendar, in Gujarat. 6.Yama Dwitiya or Bhaiduj (also Bhayyaduj, Bhaubeej or Bhayitika) (2 Kartika or 2 Shukla Paksha Kartika): on this day, brothers and sisters meet to express love and affection for each other (Gujarati: Bhai Bij, Bengali: Bhai Phota). It is based on a story when Yama, lord of Death, visited his sister Yami (the river Yamuna). Yami welcomed Yama with an Aarti  and they had a feast together. Yama gave a gift to Yami while leaving as a token of his appreciation. So, the day is also called YAMA DWITIYA. Brothers visit their sisters’ place on this day and usually have a meal there, and also give gifts to their sisters Goddess Lakshmi Puja[edit source] Main article: Lakshmi Puja Diwali marks the end of the harvest season in most of India. Farmers give thanks for the bounty of the year gone by, and pray for a good harvest for the year to come. Traditionally this marked the closing of accounts for businesses dependent on the agrarian cycle, and is the last major celebration before winter. Lakshmi symbolises wealth and prosperity, and her blessings are invoked for a good year ahead. There are two legends that associate the worship of Lakshmi on this day. According to the first legend, on this day, Lakshmi emerged from Kshira Sagar, the Ocean of Milk, during the great churning of the oceans, Samudra manthan. The second legend (more popular in western India) relates to the Vamana avatar of the big three Vishnu, the incarnation he assumed to kill the king Bali. On this day, Vishnu came back to his abode the Vaikuntha; so those who worship Lakshmi receive the benefit of her benevolent mood, and are blessed with mental, physical and material well-being.[13] As per spiritual references, on this day Lakshmi-panchayatan enters the Universe. Vishnu, Indra, Kubera, Gajendra and Lakshmi are elements of this panchayatan (a group of five). The tasks of these elements are: Lakshmi: Divine Energy (Shakti) which provides energy to all the above activities. Vishnu: Happiness (happiness and satisfaction) Kubera: Wealth (generosity; one who shares wealth) Indra: Opulence (satisfaction due to wealth) Gajendra: Carries the wealth Saraswati: Knowledge Diwali is not only celebrated by Hindus; it is somewhat also a Sikh festival as it marks the Bandi Chhor Divas festival. Spiritual significance[edit source] While Diwali is popularly known as the festival of lights, the most significant spiritual meaning behind it is the awareness of the inner light. Central to Hindu mythology is the belief that there is something beyond the physical body and mind which is pure, infinite, and eternal, called the Atman. The celebration of Diwali as the victory of good over evil, refers to the light of higher knowledge dispelling all ignorance, the ignorance that masks ones true nature, not as the body, but as the unchanging, infinite, immanent and transcendent reality. With this awakening comes compassion and the awareness of the oneness of all things (higher knowledge). This brings anand (joy or peace). Just as we celebrate the birth of our physical being, Diwali is the celebration of this Inner Light. While the story behind Diwali and the manner of celebration varies from region to region (festive fireworks, worship, lights, sharing of sweets), the essence is the same – to rejoice in the Inner Light (Atman) or the underlying Reality of all things (Brahman).

Sub Cultures From Which Criminal Behaviour Arises Criminology Essay

Sub Cultures From Which Criminal Behaviour Arises Criminology Essay Clarke et al. describe culture as the way social relations of a group are constructed, acknowledged and interpreted by its members. A subculture differs in its focal concerns but will also share some things in common with the culture from which it derives; also known as the parent culture. Subcultures must exhibit a unique structure focused on certain activities, beliefs and so on, that visibly distinguish them. Nevertheless, as they are sub-sets, there must be significant things that bind them with the parent culture. For example, the Kray twins were part of a criminal subculture and the working class culture in East London. Subcultures can be characterized by a distinctive language, music taste, dress sense, hairstyle and lifestyle understood and shared by its members. Examples include rockers, Rastafarians or punks. Criminal subcultures on the other hand, may share most of these characteristics, but will hold an alternative value system that accepts delinquent behaviour. Richard C loward and Lloyd Ohlin state that a delinquent subculture is one in which certain forms of delinquent activity are essential requirements for the performance of the dominant roles supported by the subculture (1960: 7). Criminal subcultures are normally found among lower class young males from large urban areas (Cloward Ohlin, 1960; Croall, 1998). This essay will look at a brief history of Robert Mertons work and the input of the Chicago School and associated theorists such as Edwin Sutherland to provide an understanding of how and why American subcultural theories developed thereafter. These approaches will be looked upon in assessing the works of Albert Cohen (1955) and Cloward and Ohlin (1960). Other works will be discussed such as Gresham Sykes and David Matza (1957) and Walter Miller (1958) to critique American subcultural theories. Finally, this shall be followed by work that emerged from Britain including David Downes and the Birmingham University Centre for Contemporary Cult ural Studies (CCCS). Other key factors influencing the nature of subcultures will be raised in order to provide a substantiated conclusion. Croall (1998) and Newburn (2007) both argue that American subcultural theory emerged from research carried out by the Chicago School in the 1930s on cultures, street life and delinquent gangs in Chicago. It was found that certain subcultures in society have different values and attitudes that contribute towards crime and violence. Influential theorists such as Edwin Sutherland (1937) aimed to explain the nature and development of youth subcultures by suggesting that crime is a learned behaviour that takes place in specific groups with different behaviours, attitudes and peer group pressures. He argued further that those exposed to more criminal than non-criminal values were more likely to adopt criminal values learnt through a process of differential association. This includes the techniques of committing a crime, motives, drives and rationalizations associated with crime. This differential association may differ in terms of frequency, duration, priority and intensity. Individuals th erefore become criminal due to an increased number of definitions favourable to breaking the law over definitions unfavourable to violations (Fulcher Scott, 2003; White Haines, 2004; OBrien Yar, 2008). On the contrary, Robert Merton developed the Strain Theory (1938) to expand upon the concept of anomie first argued by Durkheim who suggested that anomie is a state of normlessness in society. Merton attempted to explain the breakdown of cultural and social structure that accompanied the Great Depression of 1930s America (Burke, 2005). Social institutions such as the mass media, education system and the state stressed that middle class material rewards and success of the American Dream were achievable goals for individuals who worked hard to attain them, as argued by Merton. Unfortunately, working class male youths had different institutional means available to them. Moreover, they were ill prepared as they were not socialized to succeed in a middle class environment. They experienced strains associated with inappropriate structural opportunities to achieve culturally defined goals. For that reason, these blocked opportunities lead some people to form a delinquent subculture as a col lective solution to pursue alternative criminal avenues. Mertons theory therefore indicates that strains do not reside within the individual but are produced by wider social processes and structures (Croall, 1998, Bilton et al. 2002). Merton developed five different ways in which individuals respond; conformism- people accept the culturally defined goals and institutionalized means of attaining them; innovation- individuals accept the culturally defined goals but lack the institutionalized means to attain them and therefore resort to crime; ritualism- people accept the naturally defined goals but cannot sustain them but continue to pursue institutional mean regardless of the outcome; retreatism- people reject both the culturally defined goals and institutionalized means of attaining them and retreat from society in different ways such as substance abuse; and rebellionism- people substitute their own cultural goals and institutionalized means in place of the conventional goals and me ans of achieving them (White Haines, 2004; Burke, 2005; Newburn, 2007). Merton is criticized for accepting the status quo and assuming that there is a consensus amongst everyone to pursue the middle class cultural goals of ambition, success and achievement, rather than acknowledging how powerful people define society and its goals. Also, the focus is merely upon working class crime thus Merton accepts the official recorded crime statistics which suggest that crime is mostly committed by the working class. This suggests that the strain theory fails to consider structural inequalities for example how the capitalist system marginalizes and labels lower classes and criminalizes their activities. In addition to this Merton ignores other crimes like white collar or corporate crimes which are equally or even more damaging to society. Finally, though there may be some strain underpinning criminal behaviour, Merton does not fully explain why some individuals respond with delinquent behaviou r and others do not (White Haines, 2004, Fawbert, 2013). A different argument is provided by Albert Cohen in Delinquent Boys (1955) who developed the subcultural theory of Status Frustration. He criticized Merton for focusing on acquisitive property crime alone. Cohen argues that lower-class boys fail to attain the middle-class standards of success, suffer cultural deprivation, unemployment, educational failure and broken homes. For Cohen, the school was where lower class youth understood their choices were constrained by society (White Haines, 2004). As a result, they experience status frustration and reject mainstream goals. A delinquent subculture is formed as a collective response to these social problems. Individuals invert middle class values and therefore engage in negativistic malicious crimes such as vandalism in search for status rather than material success (Bilton et al. 2002; Terpstra, 2006, Fawbert, 2013). This notion is supported by Paul Willis study Learning to Labour (1981). Walter B. Miller disagrees with Cohens view tha t delinquents value middle class beliefs and invert them by acting out their frustration via negativistic crime. Miller developed the lower-class cultural theory (1958) that focused on gang delinquency and argued that the lower class has a separate, identifiable culture distinct from the culture of the middle class. (p.27). He argues that it has its own value system which naturally produces crime, thus a young person who conforms to lower-class values automatically becomes criminal. According to Miller (1958) lower-class culture is characterized by focal concerns; toughness, smartness, autonomy, excitement, fate and trouble. Therefore, a criminal subculture stands independently from middle-class culture and draws its beliefs and practices from its parent lower class culture (Glick, 2005; Terpstra, 2006). Richard Cloward and Lloyd Ohlin (1960) criticize Albert Cohen for failing to explain why different types of delinquency take different forms. They argue that all classes share the same societal goals of success and wealth, however, the working class is deprived of gaining these goals. Illegitimate opportunity structures will arise in situations where the cultural goals are still pursued, but legitimate opportunities are lacking. Cloward and Ohlin therefore accept Mertons view that denied legitimate access to available opportunities results in working class criminality. Cloward and Ohlin stress that delinquents have withdrawn their support from established norms and have invested officially forbidden norms of conduct with a claim to legitimacy in the light of their special situation (1960: 19-20). Cloward and Ohlin suggest working class youth will share their own delinquent subcultural values dependent on different environments that provide different opportunities for crime (White Ha ines, 2004; Burke, 2005; Glick, 2005, Shildrick, 2006). Cloward and Ohlin (1960) provide three different types of subcultures which are a form or adaptation from the blocked opportunities given by the dominant social order. First is the criminal subculture found in areas with a pre-existing criminal culture whereby prestige is allocated to those who attain material success via illegal means of securing income such as property theft. To succeed within this subculture, one should cultivate appropriate connectionsà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦andà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦promote an apprenticeship à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦with older and successful offenders (1960: 23). Second is the conflict subculture found in areas with high gang warfare and where the aim is to acquire a reputation for toughness and destructive violence (1960: 25). The manipulation of violence allows for individuals to gain status and prestige amongst their peers. The third type is retreatist subculture and it involves those that have failed to succeed both legitimately or otherwise; a double failure. Individuals or groups engage in a hedonistic existence and are culturally and socially detached from the life-style and everyday preoccupations of members of the conventional world (1960: 25). Alcohol or drug consumption becomes a way of life. All three subcultures are alike in that norms that guide behaviour are opposite to the norms of mainstream society. Cloward and Ohlin accept that these subcultures may sometimes overlap one another but overall their theory shows how working class delinquency is not due to material gain only (Croall, 1998; Newburn, 2007; Fawbert, 2013). Alternatively, David Matza 1964 argued that subcultural theory was guilty of over-predicting delinquency and ignoring human agency by providing an over deterministic view of human behaviour as influenced by society. Gresham Sykes and David Matza (1957) developed the Delinquency and Drift Theory that rejects subcultural theories and argues that working class youth subcultures form as a way of expressing particular subterranean values such as hedonism, adventure, thrill seeking and risk. Skyes and Matza argue that these are shared with mainstream society but expressed in different contexts. Mainstream society expresses these values and deferred gratification during their leisure time, whereas delinquents express these at the wrong time and place. Subcultures are seen to disregard the work ethic and enjoy pleasures that have not been earned through work (Fulcher and Scott, 2003). Further, similar to Cohens view, delinquents do not fully reject middle class goals, but regularly use techn iques of neutralization or deviance disavowal to justify their criminal actions (Shields Whitehall, 1994). One technique is the denial of responsibility such as suggesting that their action was accidental or blame it on their parents. Second is the denial of the victim by suggesting that the victim deserved it. Third is the denial of injury which involves the criminal refuting that their behaviour caused any real harm and was just for fun. Fourth, is condemning the condemners by suggesting that the police are corrupt for example. Lastly, an appeal to higher loyalties whereby other norms other than legal ones are more important and are worth protecting loved ones even if it means perverting the law (White Haines, 2004; Glick, 2005; Newburn, 2007; Fawbert, 2013). All in all, Matza and Sykes suggest that norms and values of subculture allow for criminality but do not demand it, particularly from the lower working class. Mainstream values influence criminals, thus subculture of delinquency is loose-knit as only a few members are full time committed and most drift between conformity and deviance (Fawbert, 2013 and Skyes Matza, 1957; Croall, 1998; Newburn, 2007). On the other hand, Skyes and Matza are criticized by Newburn (2007) and Downes (1966) for denying that there are distinct groups with their own distinctive values. Instead, they suggest that all people share delinquent subcultural values. The subcultural theories that have been looked at developed in America and were not always relevant to Britain where violent or criminal gangs were rarer. British work on subcultures developed from the work by Birmingham Universitys Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies (CCCS) established by Richard Hoggart in 1964, which criticized American approaches. The CCCS followed a Marxist perspective and focused on subcultures based around particular styles such as teds, rockers, skinheads and so forth. Rather than individual problems of status, the Birmingham school regarded subcultures as a working class young people solution to the problematic societal conditions. They argued that youth may face the double failure of not being able to achieve the goals of their parent culture or dominant culture as each new generation faces its own problems regarding local economic conditions. For example Stan Cohen (1972) suggested that working class youth subcultures in 1960s and 70s Britain develope d due to housing and employment changes that affected the working class as a whole. Communities broke down and many traditional jobs disappeared. Thus he argues that the latent function of subcultures is to express and resolve the contradictions unresolved in the parent culture (Clarke et al., 1976, Croall, 1998; Young, 2006). Croall (1998) argues that David Downes (1966) who carried out work on criminal youths in London found that they did not conform to the image suggested by American subcultural theorists, Cohen and Cloward Ohlin. Instead, delinquent activities were seen as fun mostly by youth with poor education and they did not display frustration at their lack of success. Rather than being opposed to mainstream values they were dissociated from middle class values within school or work settings. These youths formed a subculture where delinquent activities were an appealing solution to a leisure problem that simply occurred in their social circumstances. This is because they could not participate in middle class leisure pursuits (Glick, 2005, Muncie, 2009). In addition to this, Downes also argues that Matzas model under predicted delinquency. It appears as though crime is a working class male phenomenon, but this may be because of bourgeois assumptions about criminality. Crime statistics are measured in a positivist way and have shown that the lower working class have a greater tendency to commit crime. Moreover, it is the powerful class that puts pressure on the police and the criminal justice system to create a culture that serves their interest and not attract the label of criminality. One problem with subcultural theories as a whole is that they tend to ignore certain aspects linked to culture such as gender and ethnicity as well as the conflicts between dominant and subordinate groups. In addition to this, Heidensohn also criticizes subcultural theories for determinism, selectivity, conformity and anomie (Fulcher Scott, 2003; Young, 2006; Newburn, 2007). Other points to consider include the effect of labeling individuals as delinquent which may result in a process of self-fulfilling prophecy. One example of this is Jock Youngs study (1971) which found that 1960s hippie marijuana users, who took drugs as a social activity, developed a subculture that valued drug consumption only after they were labeled and targeted by the police. Regarding the mass media, moral panics are created through the amplified exposure of negative images of subcultures. These too exaggerate the activities of subculture and further reinforce dominant values and beliefs. Nevertheless, these theories have taken away the blame on the individual, as provided by classical theories of crime, and shifted it to social structures. Merton emphasized the strain between goals and means and the way criminal means would be used to attain goals where legitimate means such as education are lacking. Subcultural approaches by Cohen and Cloward and Ohlin, acknowledged the formation of subcultures as a response to a lack of status and opportunities supplied by cultural goals (White Haines, 2004; Clarke et al, 2006).